1. INTRODUCTION:

The concept ‘quality of work life’ (QWL) was first introduced in the 1930’s (Raduan, Beh, Uli, and Idris, 2006). QWL denotes all organizational factors which aim at satisfaction and developing organizational effectiveness of the employees. QWL also refers to favourableness or unfavourableness of job environment to its employees. In the late 1950s the term QWL was used to show the poor quality of life of employees at work place and later it was used to define employee’s reaction to work, job satisfaction, and mental health.

In late 1960’s, this term was primarily introduced as a way to influence the health and general well-being of the workers through their work, and a means to increase the quality of job experience of the people (Bowditch and Buono, 2005). Thus, it emphasized on the human facets of work by directing at the quality of relationship among the workers and their work environment (Raduan et al., 2006). QWL is one of the utmost significant factors for motivating employees and improving work in an organization (Wagenaar, Kompier, Houtman, van den Bossche, and Taris, 2012). Sirgy, Efraty, Siegel, and Lee (2001), defined QWL as satisfying employees with various needs through resources, activities and its outcomes stemming through participation in the workplace. This definition was considered to be holistic in nature as it includes aspects of other life domains, such as family, social life, and financial life. The foremost focus of QWL is beyond job satisfaction or job quality. It encompasses the influence of the place of work on job quality or job satisfaction, satisfaction in non-work life areas, personal and overall life satisfaction and also the entire well-being of its employees.

Harvard professor Richard E Walton proposed eight major conceptual categories of QWL which provides an outline for analyzing its salient features such as: adequate and fair compensation, safe and healthy working conditions, immediate opportunity to use and develop human capacities, future opportunity for continued growth and security, social integration in the work organization, constitutionalism in the work organization, work and total life space, and the social relevance of work life (Walton, 1973). Many studies have been conducted earlier concerning QWL and the findings have shown a positive relation between QWL and certain organizational variables, which include job satisfaction, employee performance, and nature of workplace (Zare, Ahmadi, Sari, Arab, and Kor, 2012). According to Efraty and Sirgy (1990), QWL influences employee’s responses towards work in terms of job satisfaction, job involvement, organizational identification, job effort, job performance, turnover intention, employee turnover, and personal alienation. As discussed by Sirisawasd, Chaiear, Johns, and Khiewyoo (2014), working conditions can also influence QWL of the employees. Many factors contribute to high or low QWL among employees in an organization. QWL leads to certain behavioural and attitudinal outcomes among employees, which in turn affects the organization in a very significant manner. Thus, the present paper is an attempt to assess the factors contributing to QWL and the major outcomes of QWL by examining the QWL dimensions and major factors which were correlated in previous QWL studies on the basis of a review of literature.

2. RESEARCH DESIGN:

The study is mainly based on the review of literature. Secondary sources such as journal articles and books relating to the topic were used for the present study.

3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

1. To assess the QWL dimensions used in earlier studies.

2. To examine the factors which were correlated with the QWL in previous studies.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

Various studies have been conducted earlier relating to QWL and different factors were correlated with this concept. From the review (See Table 1), it is clear that the majority of the researchers have incorporated Harvard Professor Richard E Walton’s eight-dimension scale in order to measure the QWL of employees. As per Daud (2010), Walton’s eight-part dimensions of QWL continues to be a suitable analytical tool. The results of the previous QWL literature revealed that the Richard Walton’s scale had demonstrated satisfactory factorial structure and internal consistency. It was also observed that some of the earlier studies generated a QWL scale through a combination of modified existing instruments and producing their own questions and its measurement scales with QWL variables. Later, more research on QWL delivered different views in conceptualizing QWL. Even though many criteria were developed, Walton’s eight factors are considered as most comprehensive criteria for measurement of QWL (Anitha and Krishna, 1996). Walton (1973), proposed the conceptual categories of QWL and suggested eight aspects in which employees’ perceptions towards their work organizations could determine their QWL which makes its measurement easy and practicable. It consists of following aspects (Walton, 1994, pp. 287-294):

1. Adequate and fair compensation - Adequacy and fairness in compensation is a relative concept and is an important determinant of QWL.

a) Adequate income refers that the income must meet determinant standards of sufficiency.

b) Fair compensation means that the pay received for a certain work must have some relationship to the pay received for other work.

2. Safe and healthy working conditions - Workers must not be exposed to physical conditions of work and hourly arrangements must not be unduly hazardous or detrimental to the health of the workers. Working conditions are considered as safe and healthy when:

a) The reasonable hours enforced by a standardized normal work period beyond which premium pay is required.

b) There are physical working conditions that minimize the risk of illness and injury

c) The age limits are imposed when work is potentially destructive to the welfare of persons below or above a certain age.

d) The odours, noises, or visual annoyances are low/moderate.

e) There is relaxation of age limits in some areas of work.

3. Immediate opportunity to use and develop human capacities - Job must enables workers to use and develop their skills and knowledge. It must have ego involvement, self-esteem, and challenge obtained from work. A good job must provide the following:

a) Autonomy: Work must permit substantial autonomy and self-control relative to external control.

b) Multiple skills: Work must allow workers to exercise a wide range of skills and abilities rather than merely repeating the same narrow skills.

c) Information and perspective: Workers must get meaningful information about the total work process and the results of their own actions, so that they can appreciate its relevance and consequences.

d) Whole tasks: One’s work must embrace a whole task or it must be a fragment of meaningful task.

e) Planning: Work must involve planning as well as implementation of activities.

4. Future opportunity for continued growth and security – It consists of the following aspects:

a) Development: It refers to the extent to which one’s current activities (work assignments and educational pursuits) contribute to maintaining and expanding one’s capabilities rather than leading to obsolescence.

b) Prospective application: It refers to the expectation to use expanded or newly acquired knowledge and skills in future work assignments.

c) Advancement opportunities: It refers to the availability of opportunities to advance in organizational or career terms recognized by peers, family members, or associates.

d) Security: It refers to employment or income security associated with one’s work.

5. Social integration in the work organization – It refers to the following aspects:

a) Freedom from prejudice: The workers must be accepted for work related traits, skills, abilities, and potential without regard to race, sex, creed, and national origin, or to lifestyles and physical appearances.

b) Egalitarianism: It refers to the absence of stratification in work organizations in terms of status, symbols, or steep hierarchical structures.

c) Mobility: It refers to the existence of upward mobility, for example, the percentage of employees at any level who potentially could qualify for higher levels.

d) Supportive primary group: Membership in face to face work groups marked by patterns of reciprocal help, socio-emotional support, and affirmation of the uniqueness of each individual.

e) Community: There must be a sense of community in work organizations that extends beyond face to face work groups.

f) Interpersonal openness: It refers to the way members of the work organization relate to one another their ideas and feelings.

6. Constitutionalism in the work organization - The following aspects of constitutionalism are key elements in providing high QWL among employees:

a) Privacy: The right to personal privacy, for e.g., employees withholding from the employer the information about their off the job behaviour or about actions of members of their family.

b) Free speech: The right to dissent openly the views of superiors in the organization without fear of reprisal.

c) Equity: The right to equitable treatment in all matters, including the employee compensation scheme, symbolic rewards, and job security.

d) Due process: It refers to governance by the “rule of law” rather than the rule of men in such matters as equal opportunity in all aspects of the job, privacy and dissent, including procedures for due process and access to appeals.

7. Work and total life space - It implies that the work schedules, career demands, travel requirements; and advancement and promotion must not call for repeated geographical moves; and organization demands must not affect the employees’ ability to perform either life role.

8. Social relevance of work life - It refers that the work organization must be socially responsible in its products, waste disposal methods, marketing techniques, employment practices, relations with underdeveloped countries, and participating in political campaigns.

Table 1: Quality of work life dimensions used in previous studies

Name of the researcher and Year	QWL scale/dimensions used
Jain (1998); da Silva Timossi, Pedroso, de Francisco, and Pilatti (2008); Mirkamali and Thani (2011); Shahbazi, Shokrzadeh, Bejani, Malekinia, and Ghoroneh (2011); Kashani (2012); Kanten and Sadullah (2012); Tabassum, Rahman, and Jahan (2012); Parvar, Allameh, and Ansari (2013); Vakili and Gorji (2014); Moradi, Maghaminejad, and Azizi-Fini (2014); Farid, Izadi, Ismail, and Alipour (2015); Kokabisaghi, Arami, and Kokabisaghi (2015); Maghaminejad and Adib-Hajbaghery (2016)	Richard E Walton’s scale (1975) Adequate and fair compensation, Safe and healthy working conditions, Immediate opportunity to use and develop human capacities, Opportunity for continued growth and security, Social integration in the work organization, Constitutionalism, Work and total life space, and Social relevance of work life
Chan and Wyatt (2007); Noor and Abdullah (2012); Viljoen, Kruger, and Saayman (2014); Singhapakdi, Lee, Sirgy, and Senasu (2015)	QWL scale based on need satisfaction theory (Sirgy et al., 2001) Health and safety, Economic and family needs, Social needs, Esteem needs, Actualization needs Knowledge needs, and Aesthetic needs
Van der Berg and Martins (2013); Benjamin (2015)	Leiden's QWL scale (Van der Doef and Maes, 1999). Skill discretion, Decision authority, Task control Work and time pressure, Role ambiguity, Physical exertion, Hazardous exposure, Job insecurity, lack of meaningfulness, Social support supervisor, and Social support colleagues
Almalki, FitzGerald, and Clark (2012); Mohamad and Mohamad (2012)	Brooks and Anderson’s Quality of Nursing Work Life (2005) Work life/home life, Work design, Work context, and Work world
Sirisawasd et al. (2014); Kahyaoglu Sut and Mestogullari (2016)	Van Laar, Edwards and Easton (2007) Work related quality of life scale (WRQLS): Employee engagement, Control at work, Home-work interface, General well-being, Job and career satisfaction, Working condition, and Stress at work
Sale (2007)	Warr P, Cook J, Wall T (1979) Work involvement, Intrinsic job motivation, Higher order need strength, Perceived intrinsic job characteristics, Job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and Happiness and self-rated anxiety
Parsa, Idris, Samah, Wahat, and Parsa (2014)	Lee, Singhapakdi, and Sirgy (2007) Lower order needs, Health and safety needs, Economic and family needs, Higher order needs, Social needs, Esteem needs, Self-actualization needs, Knowledge needs, and Aesthetic needs
Larsen (2008)	Warr (1999) and Clark (2005) Earnings, Wage satisfaction, Work hours, Working-hour satisfaction, Job security, Job demands, Job control, Use of skills, and Relationship with colleagues
Efraty and Sirgy (1990)	Need Satisfaction Questionnaire (Porter, 1961) based on Maslow's hierarchy (Maslow, 1954) Survival needs (Security needs and Pay), Social needs (Needs for interpersonal interactions and friendships and Needs for membership and being-in-the-know in a significant social group), Ego needs (Needs for self-esteem and Needs for autonomy), and Self-actualization needs (Self-fulfillment, Growth, and Utilization of one’s higher abilities)
Bragard et al. (2015)	QWL systemic inventory (QWLSI – Martel and Dupius, 2006) Compensation, Career growth, Work schedule, Relationship with colleagues, Relationship with superiors, Physical environment, Factors influencing appreciation of tasks, and Employee support
Gonzalez-Cruz et al. (2016)	CVTGOHISALO instrument developed by González et al Work institutional support, Safety at work, Inclusion in the work place, Work satisfaction, Well-being achieved through work, Personal development, and Free time management
Eren and Hisar (2016)	QNWL scale (Brooks, 2001) Work/job environment, Relations with director, Work conditions, Work perceptions, and Support services
Royuela, López-Tamayo, and Suriñach (2009)	EU multidimensional definition of QWL Intrinsic job quality; Skills, Life-Long Learning and Career Development; Gender Equality, Health and Safety at Work, Flexibility and Security, Inclusion and Access to the Labour Market, Work Organization and Work-Life Balance, Social Dialogue and Worker Involvement, Diversity and Non-Discrimination, and Overall Work Performance

Source: Compiled by the researcher

Table 2: Quality of work life correlates used in previous studies

Researcher and year	Independent variable	Dependent variable	Intervening variable	Moderating variable
Efraty and Sirgy (1990)	QWL (need satisfaction)	Behavioural responses, job satisfaction, job involvement, effort and Performance Effectiveness, personal alienation
Igbaria, Parasuraman, and Badawy (1994)	Demographic, job characteristics and work experiences; Task characteristics and boundary-spanning activities; advancement and developmental prospect; role conflict and role ambiguity	QWL, Job satisfaction, career satisfaction, organizational commitment	Career expectations	Job involvement
Schouteten and deWitte (2005)	QWL	Well-being at work (work outcomes - job satisfaction, commitment, mental and physical health, and need for recovery)	Household situation
Raduan et al. (2006)	Career dimensions (career satisfaction, achievement and balance)	QWL
Chan and Wyatt (2007)	Negative affectivity, QWL	Life satisfaction, general well-being, affective commitment, job satisfaction, turnover intention
Lee et al. (2007)	QWL	Job satisfaction, esprit de corps, organizational commitment
Royuela et al. (2009)	QWL	Job satisfaction
Daud (2010)	QWL	Organizational commitment
Nazir, Qureshi, Shafaat, and Ilyas (2011)	Office harassment	QWL	Job stress, organizational commitment
Muftah and Lafi (2011)	QWL	Employee satisfaction
Shahbazi et al. (2011)	QWL	Performance
Kanten and Sadullah (2012)	QWL	Work engagement
Noor and Abdullah (2012)	Job security, job satisfaction, job involvement	QWL
Almalki et al. (2012)	Demographics, QWL	Turnover intention
Tabassum et al. (2012)	Demographic	QWL
Dargahi, Changizi, and Gharabagh (2012)	Demographic	QWL
Kashani (2012)	QWL	Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB)
Van der Berg and Martins (2013)	Organizational trust (personality, managerial practices, trust relationship)	QWL
Gillet, Fouquereau, Bonnaud-Antignac, Mokounkolo, and Colombat (2013)	Transformational leadership, QWL	QWL, Work engagement	Organizational justice
Parvar et al. (2013)	QWL	Organizational commitment
Mosadeghrad (2013)	QWL	Turnover intention
Permarupan, Al- Mamun, and Saufi (2013)	QWL	Affective commitment	Job involvement
Moghimi, Kazemi, and Samiie (2013)	Organizational justice	QWL
Parsa et al. (2014)	QWL	Career advancement
Nekouei, Othman, Masud, and Ahmad (2014)	QWL	Job satisfaction
Surienty, Ramayah, Lo, and Tarmizi (2014)	QWL	Turnover intention
Moradi et al. (2014)	Demographic	QWL
Farid et al. (2015)	QWL	Organizational commitment
Benjamin (2015)	Organizational culture	QWL	Leadership styles
Arndt, Singhapakdi, and Tam (2015)	SRCO (socially responsible consumption orientation), CSR, QWL	QWL, Organizational commitment
Singhapakdi et al. (2015)	Organization's CSR orientation, Employees CSR orientation	QWL
Gunawan and Amalia (2015)	Wages	Employee performance		QWL
Daud, Yaakob, and Ghazali (2015)	QWL	Organizational commitment
Rai (2015)	QWL	Job performance
Sukma, Andi Tri, and Heru Sri (2016)	Personality characteristics, organizational culture, QWL	Job satisfaction, employee performance
Iyabode and Olayinka (2016)	Work-family conflict, family-work conflict, marital status	QWL, Turnover intention
Alfonso, Zenasni, Hodzic, and Ripoll (2016)	Emotional intelligence, QWL	Organizational Citizenship Behaviour	QWL	QWL
Eren and Hisar (2016)	QWL	Organizational commitment

Source: Compiled by the researcher

It is clear from the review that organizational commitment, job satisfaction, turnover intention, employee performance, job involvement, organizational citizenship behaviour, work engagement, and organizational justice were used as significant correlates of QWL (See table 2). The review clearly indicated that organizational commitment and job satisfaction were considered as the major outcomes of QWL. Davis and Cherns (1975); and Loscocco and Roschelle (1991) had rightly pointed out that while job satisfaction is largely considered to be the prime indicator of the QWL; organizational commitment and job involvement were also identified as significant attitudinal outcomes, reflective of the inner career and "goodness" of the QWL.

The study clearly reveals that the majority of the earlier studies have used demographic factors of the employees in order to assess the perception of the employees towards various dimensions of QWL. Thus, it is inferred that the demographic factors significantly contribute to assessing the QWL of employees in an organization. Besides organizational commitment and job satisfaction, other job outcome factors which were dependent on QWL include: turnover intention, job involvement, employee performance, organizational citizenship behaviour, work engagement, and organizational justice. The majority of the researchers have used QWL as an independent variable which infers that the attitudinal and behavioural outcomes such as: organizational commitment, job satisfaction, job involvement, performance, work engagement, organizational citizenship behaviour, life satisfaction, general well-being, esprit de corps, turnover intention, role conflict, and job stress are very much influenced by the QWL of employees. It is also inferred that higher the perception towards QWL, higher the positive job outcomes, and lower the negative job outcomes and vice versa. It is also clear that the QWL concept was used as a dependent variable in many previous studies, which implies that the QWL of employees is dependent on employee/organizational factors such as: demographic factors, transformational leadership, career dimensions, job environment, nature of job, role stressors, job security, organizational trust, justice and culture; and corporate social responsibility. In few studies, QWL was used also as a mediating and moderating variable which implies that QWL not only acts as an antecedent which influences certain employee/job outcomes and a major outcome factor which is dependent on certain employee/organizational factors, but also, mediates and moderates the relationship between certain employee/organizational factors and employee/job outcomes. Other concepts which mediates or moderates the relationship between QWL and other job related factors were observed to be: job involvement, organizational justice, career expectations, household situations, job stress, organizational commitment, and leadership styles (See table 2).

Thus, it is concluded that the ‘quality of work life is the expectation, experience, and consequently the perception of people in an organization with respect to various aspects of their job which also have an influence on their non-work life aspects'. It depends on employee/organizational factors, impacts job outcomes, mediates or moderates the relationship between employee/organizational factors and employee/job outcomes. To make it clear, the level of QWL depends on the employee/organizational factors. The level of QWL impacts both positive and negative employee/job outcomes. It also acts as a mediator and a moderator in the employee/organizational factors-employee/job outcomes relationship.

The findings of the present review have several implications for QWL researchers. In future QWL studies, the researchers can consider Richard Walton’s eight-dimension scale to measure QWL of employees as it is considered to be the most comprehensive and most widely used scale for its measurement. Researchers can either incorporate QWL as an independent variable, dependent variable, mediating variable or as a moderating variable in their future studies as per the requirements of the study, while taking into account the major features of employment of employees in their respective study area. The job features and the possible job outcomes prevailing among employees in the organization type selected for the study which has a significant relationship with their QWL can be identified as independent variables, dependent variables, and mediating or moderating variables.

5. CONCLUSION:

The present study contributes to the existing literature by providing an insight into the dimensions and correlates used in the previous QWL studies. It is clear from the review that the majority of the researchers have incorporated Richard E Walton’s eight-dimensions scale in order to measure the QWL of employees. The study clearly reveals that the majority of the earlier studies have used job satisfaction and organizational commitment as a significant correlate of QWL, followed by demographic factors, turnover intention, employee performance, job involvement, organizational citizenship behaviour, work engagement, and organizational justice. Thus, it is concluded that the QWL is dependent on certain employee/organizational factors. The level of QWL contributes to certain positive or negative attitudinal and behavioural outcomes among employees. And finally, it is observed that the QWL also mediates and moderates the relationship between employee/organizational factors and employee/job outcomes.

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Received on 22.11.2018 Modified on 05.01.2019

Int. J. Rev. and Res. Social Sci. 2019; 7(1):131-138.

DOI: 10.5958/2454-2687.2019.00010.8